About the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court

The FISA court is a highly secretive panel of 11 federal judges whose primary responsibility is to decide whether the U.S. government has enough evidence against foreign powers or individuals believed to be foreign agents to allow for their surveillance by the intelligence community. FISA is an acronym for the  Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. The court is also referred to as the  Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, or FISC. The federal government cannot use the FISA court to  intentionally target any U.S. citizen, or any other U.S. person, or to intentionally target any person known to be in the United States, though the  National Security Agency has acknowledged  it inadvertently collects information on some Americans without a warrant in the name of national security. FISA, in other words, is not a tool for combating domestic terrorism but it has been used in the post-September 11th era to gather data on Americans. The FISA court adjourns in a bunker-like complex operated by the U.S. District Court on Constitution Avenue, near the  White House and Capitol. The courtroom is said to be  soundproof to prevent eavesdropping and the judges do not speak publicly about the cases because of the sensitive nature of national security. In addition to the FISA court, there is a second secret judicial panel called the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review  whose responsibility to oversee and review the decisions made by the FISA court. The Court of Review, like the FISA court, is seated in Washington, D.C. But it is made up of only three judges from the federal district court or appeals court. Functions of the FISA Court   The FISA court’s role is to rule on applications and evidence submitted by the federal government and to grant or deny warrants for  Ã¢â‚¬Å"electronic surveillance, physical search, and other investigative actions for foreign intelligence purposes.† The court is the only one in the land that has the authority to allow federal agents to conduct â€Å"electronic surveillance of a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power for the purpose of obtaining foreign intelligence information,† according to the Federal Judicial Center. The FISA court requires the federal government to provide substantial evidence before it grants surveillance warrants, but the judges rarely ever turn down applications. If the FISA court grants an application for government surveillance, it also limits the scope of the intelligence gathering to a specific location, telephone line or email account, according to published reports.   FISA has since its enactment been a bold and productive tool in this country’s fight against the efforts of foreign governments and their agents to engage in intelligence-gathering aimed at the U.S. government, either to ascertain its future policy or to effect its current policy, to acquire proprietary information not publicly available, or to engage in disinformation efforts, wrote James G. McAdams III, a former Justice Department official and senior legal instructor with the Department of Homeland Securitys  Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers. Origins of the FISA Court The FISA court was established in 1978 when Congress enacted the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. President Jimmy Carter signed the act on Oct. 25, 1978. It was originally intended to allow for electronic surveillance but has seen been expanded to include physical searches and other data-collection techniques. FISA was signed into law amid  the Cold War and a period of deep skepticism of the president after the Watergate scandal and disclosures that the federal government used electronic surveillance and physical searches of citizens, a member of Congress, congressional staffers, anti-war protesters and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. without warrants. The act helps to solidify the relationship of trust between the American people and their government, Carter said in signing the bill into law. It provides a basis for the trust of the American people in the fact that the activities of their intelligence agencies are both effective and lawful. It provides enough secrecy to ensure that intelligence relating to national security can be securely acquired, while permitting review by the courts and Congress to  safeguard the rights of Americans and others. Expansion of FISA Powers The  Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act has been expanded beyond its original scope several times since Carter placed his signature on the law in 1978. In 1994, for example, the act was amended to allow the court to grant warrants for the use of  pen registers, trap and trace devices and business records. Many of the most substantive expansions were put in place after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001. At the time, Americans indicated a willingness to trade some measures of freedom in the name of national security. Those expansions include: The passage of the USA Patriot Act in October 2001. The acronym stands for  Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism. The Patriot Act broadened the scope of the governments use of surveillance and allowed the intelligence community to act more quickly in wiretapping. Critics including the American Civil Liberties Union, however, pointed out the allowed the government to obtain the personal records of ordinary Americans from libraries and Internet Service Providers even without probable cause.The passage of the  Protect America Act on August 5, 2007. The law allowed the National Security Agency to conduct surveillance without a warrant or approval from the FISA court on American soil if the target was believed to be a foreign agent. In effect, wrote the ACLU, the government may now scoop up all communications coming into or out of the United States, as long as it is targeting no one American in particular and the program is â€Å"directed at† the foreign end of the communication.  Whether the target or not, American phone calls, emails and internet use will be recorded by our government, and without any suspicion of wrongdoing.  The passage of the FISA Amendments Act in 2008, which granted the government the authority to access communication data from Facebook, Google, Microsoft and Yahoo. Like to Protect America Act of 2007, the FISA Amendments Act targeted non-citizens outside of the United States but concerned privacy advocates because of the likelihood average citizens were being watched without their knowledge or a warrant from the FISA court. Members of the FISA Court Eleven federal judges are assigned to the FISA court. They are appointed by the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court and serve seven-year terms, which are nonrenewable and staggered to ensure continuity. FISA Court judges are not subject to confirmation hearings such as those required for Supreme Court nominees. The statute that authorized the creation of the FISA court mandates the judges represent at least seven of the U.S. judicial circuits and that three of judges live within 20 miles of Washington, D.C., where the court sits. The judges adjourn for one week at a time on a rotating basis The current FISA Court judges are: Rosemary M. Collyer: She is the presiding judge on the FISA court and has been a U.S. District Court judge for the District of Columbia since being nominated to the federal bench by President George W. Bush in 2002. Her term on the FISA court began May 19, 2009, and expires March 7, 2020.James E. Boasberg: He has been a U.S. District Court judge for the District of Columbia since being nominated to the federal bench by President Barack Obama in 2011. His term on the FISA court began May 19, 2014, and expires March 18, 2021.Rudolph Contreras: He has been a U.S. District Court judge for the District of Columbia since being nominated to the federal bench by Obama in 2011. His term on the FISA court began May 19, 2016, and expires May 18, 2023.Anne C. Conway: She has been a U.S. District Court judge for the Middle District of Florida since being nominated to the federal bench by President George H.W. Bush in 1991. Her term on the FISA court began May 19, 2016, and expires May 18, 2023.Ra ymond J. Dearie: He has been a U.S. District Court judge for the Eastern District of New York since being nominated to the federal bench by President Ronald Reagan in 1986. His term on the FISA court began July 2, 2012, and ends July 1, 2019.Claire V. Eagan: She has been a U.S. District Court judge for the Northern District of Oklahoma since being nominated to the federal bench by President George W. Bush in 2001. Her term on the FISA court began Feb. 13, 2013, and ends May 18, 2019.James P. Jones: He has served as a U.S. District Court judge for the Western District of Virginia since being nominated for the federal bench by President William J. Clinton in 1995. His term on the FISA court began on May 19, 2015, and ends May 18, 2022.Robert B. Kugler: He has served as a U.S. District Court judge for the District of New Jersey since being nominated for the federal bench by George W. Bush in 2002. His term on the FISA court began May 19, 2017, and ends May 18, 2024.Michael W. Mosman: H e has served as a U.S. District Court judge for the District of Oregon since being nominated for the federal bench by President George W. Bush in 2003. His term on the FISA court began May 04, 2013, and ends May 03, 2020.Thomas B. Russell: He has served as a U.S. District Court judge for the Western District of Kentucky since being nominated for the federal bench by Clinton in 1994. His term on the FISA court began May 19, 2015, and ends May 18, 2022.John Joseph Tharp Jr.: He has served as a U.S. District Court judge for the Northern District of Illinois since being appointed by Obama in 2011. His term on the FISA court began May 19, 2018, and ends May 18, 2025. Key Takeaways: The FISA Court FISA stands for the  Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. The act was established during the Cold War.The 11 members of the FISA court decide whether the U.S. government can spy on foreign powers or individuals believed to be foreign agents.The FISA court is not supposed to allow the U.S. to spy on Americans or others living in the county, even though the governments powers have expanded under the act.

Relations Between Mexico And Cuba - 2034 Words

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Tolerance Of Genetic Modification And Engineering Of Crops - Sample

Question: Discuss about the Tolerance Of Genetic Modification And Engineering Of Crops. Answer: Discussion on the plots visited The crops case study plots have shown how the intensity in wheat production have been gearing. Growth of wheat has been fairly straight forward however the management practices have played key role in ensuring management strategies influences yield output, (Rossi et al. 2014, 45). In the case studies, aspects of best variety selections, rate of growth, weed control and disease control were investigated. Various researches have put in best trials and experimental plot to assess the tolerance of genetic modification and engineering of crops to suit various aspects of crop growth with an aim of improving output, (Pergamo et al 2016). Investigation on high yielding cultivars has been investigated as observed in Dion Bennet breeding site. Wheat disease such as yellow spot disease has been investigated, with techniques adopting newer genes on crops and ensuring they give in best genes to enable high yield production. Other case study site has adopted to cropping system with livestock management practices with an aim of building the symbiotic relationships of animal husbandry and crop production practices. And in the Merdian field, research has geared towards adopting gene resistant and tolerant wheat varieties while the DIPRD site has focussed on how environmental factors impacts on crop production and yield. All this has been success courtesy of incorporating technology into farming practices in agricultural practices. Factors affecting agricultural practices It is important to note that there are various aspects which influence agricultural production. Production is not an absolute measure, but rather, a mirror of the ration of inputs and outputs. Crops field that produces twice as much of crops in a certain period cannot be compared twice its productivity. A case example is that if the farmers spent as much on that field, then the net change in productivity is expected to be zero, (Borches Bewley, 2015, 4200). Climatic factors have played crucial role in agricultural production. A temperature range which is minimum of 60C for crops to grow and rainfall range of at least 250mm to 500mm have influenced various types of crops grown. Hot, wet tropical areas favours rice production while cooler environmental aspects favour wheat output, (Alvim Kozlowski, 2013). However increase in temperature and carbon monoxide CO2 has an impact of increasing crop yields. However to get hold of this key aspects there is need to focus on nutrient levels, soil moisture and water availability for crops to yield. Crop farming capacity has an impact on crop production. Soil has its own elasticity to support production to certain levels, (Koal et al 2015). However utilization of other cropping systems such as proper use of fertilizer to improve soil nutritive value has an impact on crop production. Hence in large production, farming techniques have been adopted to improve yields. Drought mitigation measures Drought mitigation measures have incorporated large number of actions which include supply increase, demand reduction of water and drought impact minimisation approaches. This has called for earlier preparation for both long term actions oriented to reduce the vulnerability of water supply. Hence the role of rain monitoring system is crucial is effective in drought management so as to reduce the impact of drought, (Smith, 2000, 102). In crop management systems, farmers are advised to practice conservation efforts with regard to minimizing soil structure, composition and biodiversity thus reducing soil degradation, surface runoff and water pollution, (Wilhite et al 2007, 570). Some of the recommended avenues include crop rotation, contour structuring, effective tillage practices, erosion management practices and reclamation of salt affected soils, (Pereira et al 2002, 200). Frost management in crop farming has been brought about by the amount of injury caused on crops due to reduced temperature which reaches a specific level referred to critical damage temperature, (Barlow et al 2015, 105). Frosty increases injury as the temperature levels fall. For effective crop management practices, there are passive methods which have been adopted to mitigate this factor. They include appropriate site selection, cold air management, proper pruning, removing cover crops, bacteria control, minimal soil cultivation and appropriate planting periods. Active approaches include use of heaters, wind machines, sprinklers, surface irrigation and other combination measures. In animal management, there is need for mitigation measures which cushion the farmers against the adverse effects of performance survival and livestock performance. Low rainfalls have shown to reduce both the amount of water received, thus the critical aspect is to try to manage the little water as much as possible. Low rainfall patterns have shown to reduce both the quality and quantity of farmland. The grass pasture reduces prematurely and their nutritive values are hampered, (Wilhite, 2005). For animal husbandry it is prudent, to practice padlocking practices with regard to pasture regulation of animals, secondly it is crucial to ensure that appropriate timing for culling of animals is practices. Meaning that farmers have to look what you can dispose when drought begin or strike. Further farmers need to act proactively and not reactively. Many farmers tend to dispose off their animals when it is too late, thus hampering the quality output of culling, (Iglesius et al 2003, 220). Aluminium toxicity in plants Aluminium toxicity in pants has been the most common cause of growth reduction and linked to strong acid soils. The primary effect of effective management is to reduce root growth management is to reduce root development, (Rout Samantarary, 2001, 20). Root hair development needs to be suppressed when the concentrations of aluminium increases, the down ward extension of the roots needs to be restricted. Adoption of tolerant mechnaims in plant growth has been the exclusion of Aluminium in root apex mechanism and to allow the plant to tolerate in plant cells. Another avenue used is to ensure production of organic acid so as to achieve Aluminium toxicity, (Ali et al 2008, 155). PH management The soil Ph has been used as a measure of relative acidity and alkalinity in soil solution. Soil pH affects many crucial aspects of crop production, which include nutrition availability, metal toxicity and efficacy use of herbicides applications. Regular usage of lime applications in crops is essential in preventing crops from acidic environment. Lime application will be determined by the lime quality, soil type and tillage depth, (Khan et al, 2009). Herbicides usage and salinity effect Herbicide usage has been used increasingly around the world, and has been used for weed control process. Hand weeding or machinery weeding has never been an efficient way of crop management, hence adoption of herbicides use to increase crop yields, (Heap, 2014). Herbicides has been adopted worldwide to replace tillage farming and to improve environmental conditions, (Fernarndez, 2012). Herbicide has been found to reduce soil erosion, fuel use, green house emissions and nutrient run off. In gavins' hoogbooms farm and field pea , soil treatment has been adopted. High levels of salinity levels in plants have found an impact in crop germination and nutrient release in plants. Salinity acts as a drought on plants limiting water and nutrients, (Mamo, Wortmann Shapiro, 2009). Effective management approaches has incorporated the use of drainage systems to provide leaching effects of salt beyond the crop rooting area. Other measures which can be used include, scrapping methods, flushing of soils and leaching practices for the soil, (Mallarino et al, 2013). Designs options for future farming Farming designs needs to focus on conservation agriculture which is geared towards, achieving a sustained and profitable livelihood to farmers. Integrating these principles of livestock management and crop production in conservation practices is an incoming approach which creates a common sustenance for both, (Abrol, 2005). The future of design options needs to focus on adapting key principles of integrated crop management systems which adopts local agro-ecological aspects using a tailored made approach process, (FAO, 2009). Engaging in collaborative management should be geared towards participatory process. There is need for the new systems to focus on innovative and usage of indigenous knowledge and the use of incentives and subsidies to cushion farmers, (Landers Weiss, 2008). The need for creating awareness for crop management practices and adaption approaches for climate changes are key towards enabling sustainable crop and livestock practices and to improve the overall agronomy aspects of agriculture (Verburg et al 2004). Conclusion thus it is crucial to employ effective crop management practices in farming practices. Adoption of effective practices is key towards reducing barriers to wheat growth management. With the advancement of technology, wheat production practices is set to improve and give farmers value outputs on the wheat farms. References Ali, B., S. A. Hasan, S. Hayat, Q. Hayat, S. Yadav, Q. Fariduddin, and A. Ahmad. 2008. "A role for brassinosteroids in the amelioration of aluminium stress through antioxidant system in mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek)." Environmental and Experimental Botany 62, no. 2: 153-159. Alvim, Paulo de T., and Theodore Thomas Kozlowski, eds. 2013. Ecophysiology of tropical crops. Elsevier,. Barlow, K. M., B. P. Christy, G. J. Oleary, P. A. Riffkin, and J. G. Nuttall. 2015. "Simulating the impact of extreme heat and frost events on wheat crop production: A review." Field Crops Research 171 : 109-119 Borchers, M. R., and J. M. Bewley. 2015. "An assessment of producer precision dairy farming technology use, prepurchase considerations, and usefulness." Journal of dairy science 98, no. 6 : 4198-4205. FAO. 2009. Enhancing Crop-Livestock Systems in Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Production Intensification. A Farmer Discovery Process Going to Scale in Burkina Faso. Integrated Crop Management Vol.7-. FAO, Rome. Heap, Ian. "Herbicide resistant weeds." In Integrated pest management, pp. 281-301. Springer Netherlands, 2014. Iglesias, Eva, Alberto Garrido, and Almudena Gmez?Ramos. 2003. "Evaluation of drought management in irrigated areas." Agricultural Economics 29, no. 2: 211-229. Khan, Shahbaz, Munir A. Hanjra, and Jianxin Mu. 2009. "Water management and crop production for food security in China: a review." Agricultural water management 96, no. 3 : 349-360. Koal, Philipp, Rolf Schilling, Georg Gerl, Karin Pritsch, and Jean Charles Munch. 2015. "Effect of different agronomic management practices on greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient cycling in a long-term field trial." In EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts, vol. 17. Landers J. N.and Weiss J. 2008. Study on the Conversion of Degraded Tropical Pastures to Productive Crop x Livestock Rotations and their Effect on Mitigating Deforestation. WWF and The Nature Conservancy.. Mallarino, Antonio P., John E. Sawyer, and Stephen K. Barnhart. 2013. "A general guide for crop nutrient and limestone recommendations in Iowa." Mamo, Martha, Charles S. Wortmann, and Charles A. Shapiro. 2003. Lime use for soil acidity management. Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Pereira, Luis Santos, Theib Oweis, and Abdelaziz Zairi. 2002. "Irrigation management under water scarcity." Agricultural water management 57, no. 3 : 175-206. Pergamo, Raffaella, Lelio Morra, and Carlo Triarico. 2016. "A sustainable competitive model: the biodynamic farming in Italy." RIVISTA DI STUDI SULLA SOSTENIBILITA' . Rossi, Evandrei Santos, Marcelo Cruz Mendes, Omar Possatto Junior, Diego Ary Rizzardi, and Carlos Augusto Silva. 2014. "Agronomics characteritcs of wheat cultivars in response to urea treaded with urease inhibitor in coverage." Applied Research Agrotechnology 6, no. 3 : 39-46. Rout, G., S. Samantaray, and P. Das. 2001. "Aluminium toxicity in plants: a review." Agronomie 21, no. 1 : 3-21. Singh, U. P., Y. Singh, H. P. Singh, and R. K. Gupta. 2005. Cropping system options in No/reduced till-Surface residue managed systems. eds. Conservation agriculture-Status and prospects. No. CIS-5452. CIMMYT. Smith, Martin. 2000. "The application of climatic data for planning and management of sustainable rainfed and irrigated crop production." Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103, no. 1: 99-108. Verburg, Peter H., Paul P. Schot, Martin J. Dijst, and A. Veldkamp. 2004. "Land use change modelling: current practice and research priorities." GeoJournal 61, no. 4 : 309-324. Wilhite, Donald A., ed. Drought and water crises: science, technology, and management issues. CRC Press, 2005. Wilhite, Donald A., Mark D. Svoboda, and Michael J. Hayes. 2007. "Understanding the complex impacts of drought: a key to enhancing drought mitigation and preparedness." Water resources management 21, no. 5 : 763-774.